TOURiSM

PREPARING PROTECTED AREAS FOR TOURISM

Marketing tourism for protected areas

Even with the best product, if the right people do not know about it (what it is, how it can be obtained) it will not sell. The same holds true for tourism and protected areas. While it is certainly recognised that some protected area managers want few if any tourists, those parks interested in promoting tourism or dependent on tourism receipts for their economic justification are in need of marketing skills. Marketing is, however, still viewed with scepticism by many conservationists and protected area managers.

Those responsible for protected area management could also consider using the services of independent professionals to develop and implement marketing strategies.

The marketing of tourism includes the following phases:

• inventory of existing attractions and activities
• targeting of appropriate market segments of specific groups of tourists
• evaluation of the appeal of the various attractions and activities for each targeted group
• promotion.

Inventory of existing attractions and activities

Protected area managers should ask themselves "What do we have now in this protected area or natural region that will interest tourists?" Attractions, which include activities, are usually divided into two categories: core attractions and supporting attractions. Core attractions are the principal assets that a region or a community can offer tourists. Sometimes these attractions seem commonplace to local residents, but it is often because they are typical of the area that they appeal to the tourist. Supporting attractions are minor — in other words, they alone would not be of sufficient appeal to attract tourists — but they nevertheless supplement the main attractions.

Core attractions include natural attractions (such as lakes or rivers, geological formations, a tropical forest, certain species of wildlife) or cultural and heritage attractions (such as an Indian village or archaeological site) that provide an opportunity to learn about local customs or activities of the past.

Supporting attractions may be man-made, such as interpretive centres, onsite museums, accommodation, shopping or eating facilities, or services such as guided walking tours, or special events that either provide entertainment or encourage tourist participation (e.g. field seminars or special exhibits). (See Box 35 for guidelines on producing an inventory of attractions for ecotourism).

Targeting

During this phase, potential market segments based upon geographic and behavioural characteristics of potential tourists should be identified. If market demand is not well understood, the result can be dissatisfied customers who will not return, no customers at all (despite use of expensive advertising), or a community that is hostile to tourism because it disrupts its way of life and/or fails to deliver any benefits locally. Questions to be asked include:

• What types of people would be interested in the attractions we have to offer? Whom can we attract?
• Whom do we want to come here?
• Where do they live?
• What are their main interests?
• What is their income level and how much are they willing to spend on their holiday?
• What do they presently do as tourists?
• Where do they presently go?
• What do they want to do?
• How easily can they travel to this area?
• How do they decide where they will travel and what they will do while at and en route to a holiday destination?

The information gathered during the early phases of the marketing process will have several uses. For example, information about the geographic location in which the protected area is located and the receiving community(ies), and the origin of the visitors' own community or country, will influence transportation issues, decisions about other support services, and the potential size of the market. Information concerning the behavioural and demographic characteristics of potential visitors will influence the combination of attractions offered, the support services required, entrance fees and prices, and choice of media for promotion purposes. Behavioural characteristics that should be identified include motivation for travel or visitation, values of the target group, its specific interests and activities, and general lifestyle. Demographic characteristics that must be taken into account include age, marital status, size and make-up of family, education, income, occupation, disabilities and other health considerations. Care should be taken to determine what the area (including its local communities) really can deliver and the worldwide trends that might affect the local situation.

For ecotourism, the primary market is a sub-group of nature-based speciality travel. But it should be emphasized again that nature-based speciality travel is not equivalent to ecotourism. Given a suitable context, however, nature tourists could become ecotourists. Moreover, the ecotourism market is not limited to current customers for nature-based tourism. Additional markets for ecotourism customers can be sought among non-nature-based speciality travellers (Ziffer, 1989). In other words, the key prospects for ecotourism are both "born" and "made". It is not necessary to narrow the target only to those people predisposed to nature travel. Indeed, in order to fulfil its mission and to achieve business success, ecotourism must also reach out to potential consumers unfamiliar with the concept (Whelan, 1991).

Some researchers believe that in some industrialized countries the growth of the economy is no longer driven by the desire of consumers to accumulate goods, but by their quest for vivid experience (Ogilvy, 1986, cited by Ziffer, 1989). This might explain the rapid rise in overseas travellers and the increasing market for "exotic" and "adventure" vacations. The search for activities involving "experience" and "personal enhancement" is characteristic of speciality travel in general, and nature travel in particular. A recent Lou Harris poll reported that 40% of American travellers are interested in "life enhancing" travel as compared with 20% who are interested in "seeking the sun". Research in the US uncovered five major reasons why Americans participate in outdoor recreation:

• to become fit
• to socialize
• for excitement
• to experience self and nature
• to escape cramped living and working conditions (Ziffer, 1989).

A group of particular interest is that which has been described as the "get away active" (GAA) group. People in this group participate more frequently in the type of activity that is common to nature-based travel. GAAs may seek "softer" or supported tours because they are generally not risk takers. In addition, they seek solitude, which means the "enjoyment capacity" of a site may be limited. But since the primary motivation for GAAs is to "experience nature", they are excellent candidates for ecotourism, particularly as they are willing to forego sophisticated facilities. Moreover, in the US, the aging "baby boomers" who form part of the GAA group are now entering their peak earning years, and those of them who were more sports-oriented may switch to activities that are less rigorous and involve the observation of nature (Ziffer, 1989).

Box 35: Producing an inventory of ecotourism attractions

A detailed inventory of ecotourism attractions is crucial to managing the tourism in a protected area. This inventory must be as complete and detailed as possible, but it should not be considered as an exhaustive, scientific list of all the species of plants and animals that the area contains, or as a complete catalogue of historic buildings or other cultural artifacts in the case of an archaeological site. The inventory should instead be seen as a description of those features of the protected area that constitute the main attractions to tourists. Attractions in protected areas may be divided into two main categories: core attractions (which always refer to the main natural and/or cultural features that are protected within it) and "supporting" attractions (which are of a secondary nature and include physical infrastructure and facilities for tourists). The language used in preparing inventories should not be overly technical or scientific.

The following checklist should prove useful when preparing an inventory of ecotourism attractions for a protected area:

1.			Name and protected category of the site
2.			Geographical location (including a location sketch, latitude, longitude, altitude above sea level)
3.			Extent of the park (surface in hectares)
4.			Means of access and entry points
5.			Internal circulation
	5.1		Vehicular roads and parking areas
	5.2		Pedestrian walks, paths, and trails
	5.3		Equestrian trails
	5.4		Bicycle or DRV (off-road vehicles) routes
	5.5		Water routes
6.			Brief description of overall visual resources
	6.1		Basic terrain variety: abrupt topography, moderate slopes, practically flat, etc.
	6.2		Variety of geomorphological features: jagged peaks, rounded hills, snow-capped mountains, cliffs, canyons, ravines, glaciers, caves, etc.
	6.3		Variety of hydrological features: sea, rivers, beaches, lakes, lagoons, reservoirs, waterfalls, springs, geysers, etc.
	6.4		Variety of vegetational patterns: highly or moderately varied, practically uniform
	6.5		Effects of land uses (lack or presence of discordant visual elements: buildings, utility lines, deforested areas, highways, etc.
7.			Climate patterns
	7.1		Temperature
	7.2		Precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, hail, etc.)
	7.3		Winds (speed, direction)
	7.4		Humidity
	7.5		Air pressure
	7.6		Cloudiness
8.			Comfort indexes: hot, warm, fresh, cool, cold, extremely cold, humid, dry (for different seasons)
9.			Natural attractions
	9.1		Geological/geomorphological features
		9.1.1	Mountains and volcanoes
		9.1.2	Inter-montane valleys, basins, or plains
		9.1.3	Canyons (ravines, gorges, etc.)
		9.1.4	Cliffs (falaises, basaltic columns, bluffs, etc.)
		9.1.5	Boulders, balancing rocks, etc.
		9.1.6	Caves, grottoes, cenotes, etc.
		9.1.7	Sand dunes, sandbanks, etc.
		9.1.8	Fossils
		9.1.9	Islands
		9.1.10	Coral reefs, keys, cays
		9.1.11	Capes, peninsulas, points
		9.1.12	Bays, inlets, coves, straits, etc.
		9.1.13	Beaches
	9.2		Hydrological resources
		9.2.1	Ocean waters
		9.2.2	Rivers, streams, underwater currents, glaciers, icebergs, etc.
		9.2.3	Lakes, ponds, reservoirs, cenotes, oases, etc.
		9.2.4	Estuarine waters (freshwater, brackish, coastal lagoons, wetlands, marismas, etc.)
		9.2.5	Springs (hot, cold, sulphurous, etc.)
		9.2.6	Waterfalls
	9.3.		Biological resources
		9.3.1	Flora
		9.3.1.1	Main vegetation types: rainforest, deciduous tropical forest, desert, coniferous forest, mixed temperate forest, mangroves, chaparral, etc.
		9.3.1.2	Main species (most interesting, rarest, most beautiful, most characteristic of the area, etc.)
		9.3.1.3	Specific individual trees (with exact location)
		9.3.2	Fauna (species checklists, singling out target species)
		9.3.2.1	Insects
		9.3.2.2	Fishes
		9.3.2.3	Reptiles and amphibians
		9.3.2.4	Birds
		9.3.2.5	Mammals
10.			Cultural heritage attractions
	10.1		Archaeological features
	10.2		Local folklore: ethnic groups, villages, architecture, dress, marketplace, food, dance and music, hand crafts, traditions, ceremonies, etc.
	10.3		Historical and architectural landmarks
11.			Support attractions and tourism physical facilities
	11.1		Interpretive facilities and services: visitor centre, nature trails, guided walks

Source: Adapted from Ceballos-Lascuráin, 1986; Boullón, 1985.

Once the motivations of consumers or potential consumers are clearly understood, it is helpful to consider whether there are any general demographic trends. An interesting study of the adventure travel market was carried out in 1987 by Adventure Travel Magazine, by means of a reader survey. The survey found that the typical adventure traveller was an affluent man approaching middle age. (However, according to Ziffer (1991) this profile may be changing; tour operators report that women now make up nearly half of their customers).

Other major findings included:

• age: majority between 35-54; median age of 45
• median income: US$38,800
• home state: 33% from Mountain and Pacific States
• average amount of money spent on each trip: US$4,623 (spending begins prior to the trip, with purchases of accessories, equipment, books, etc.)
• average number of "experience trips" per year: 3
• most popular "adventures" involve: backpacking, hiking or camping
• the following prediction emerged: 16 million people will take adventure travel trips over the next 20 years (this figure includes "soft" trips).

WWF-US was able to draw up an "ecotourist" profile through its 1988 ecotourism study carried out in five Latin American and Caribbean countries (Belize, Costa Rica, Dominica, Ecuador, and Mexico) (Boo, 1990). The study involved several surveys of foreign nature-oriented tourists, undertaken at the international airports of these countries. The typical ecotourist emerged as follows:

• average age: 43.9
• gender: male, 51%; female, 49%
• first visit to country: 73%
• mode of travel: alone (21%); with family (36%); with friends/colleagues (23%); on a tour (20%)
• main activities: birdwatching (58%); wildlife observation (55%); boat trips (42%); botany (31%); hiking/trekking (28%); local cultures (25%); jungle excursions (23%); mountaineering (22%)
• level of satisfaction with the trip: very satisfied (67%); satisfied (21%); not very satisfied (4%); disappointed (0%).

According to research by Mudge (1991), the US ecotourism market is growing rapidly, although clear-cut statistics do not exist. However, studies indicate that the most popular special interest tours are related to nature-oriented outdoor activities. Tour operators report that between 4 and 6 million Americans take nature-related trips each year. Buzzworm, an environmental journal, estimated that, in 1989, more than 3 million people would pay several thousand dollars each for exotic nature and cultural travel.

Lindberg (1991) has identified four basic types of nature tourists:

• hard core: scientific researchers or members of tours specifically designed for education, removal of litter, and so on
• dedicated: people who take trips specifically to see protected areas and who want to understand local natural and cultural history
• mainstream: people who travel to destinations such as the Amazon, or the Rwandan gorilla park, primarily to take an unusual trip
• casual: people who partake of nature incidentally as part of a broader trip.

A good option is to convert existing structures into tourist facilities, as in the case of the Archeological Site of Chichén ltzá in Yucatán, Mexico. A historic hacienda has been transformed into a very attractive and comfortable hotel (64).

A single individual may fit into different categories at different times. But this simple description of market segments is useful for planning purposes. For example, hard core and dedicated nature tourists are more likely to be tolerant of limited amenities than casual tourists.

Pricing is another very important aspect of targeting. Questions that can be asked include:

• What are the income levels of the tourists we are interested in attracting?
• How much is the tourist willing to spend for a particular experience?
• What is the cost of providing that experience?
• If a protected area visit could be combined with another travel destination, what would the incremental cost of visiting that protected area be?

Value is more important than price, however. In the case of ecotourism, multi-tiered pricing (especially in some developing countries) can improve both equity and efficiency. Two-tiered pricing policies in the form of user levies (usually park entrance fees) have served to increase revenues. Alternatively, or in combination, in countries such as Costa Rica and Kenya, where tourists usually visit more than one park, system-wide fees could be paid at one point and valid for visiting all the parks within the area or country. At any rate, fees must be adjusted constantly to take into account fluctuations in demand for the attraction within the tourism market, changes in the provision of tourism services in the park, the changing needs of the park itself, and inflation.

None of this is to deny that some tourism experts have questioned the value of segmenting the travel market, claiming that "everyone crosses over" the lines (Beekhuis, 1989). They consider that the total travel market (or at least a major portion of it) is potentially interested in all things that are ecologically-oriented and that customers should not be rigidly separated. However, segmentation can help clarify any thinking about major market groups and how best to package and sell ecotourism destinations. The nature-oriented tourist is the ultimate source of the revenue that will encourage tour operators to go into business, which will in turn convince governments to establish protected areas (or to strengthen existing ones) as part of an overall tourism strategy. (Thus who those customers are, what motivates them, and how they make their travel decisions are key issues for both the business person and the policy maker. By understanding customer groups, their motivations and characteristics, policy makers and protected area managers can better manage tourism impact.)

Evaluation of appeal

Once it has been determined what an area and its community can offer tourists, and what types of tourists might come, the attractions and activities can be matched with specific market segments. During this evaluation and decision-making phase, the objectives of the protected area management and the community should be clarified, making certain that the market segments selected for targeting are compatible with these objectives and with what the area and the community can offer. Defining target markets will help focus attention on the type of tourism industry the area wishes to develop and what strategy to adopt for communication.

In addition, the potential levels of demand and usage for the different attractions and services should be estimated. This step is critical since it involves calculating whether the carrying capacity of the environment and the tourism facilities are sufficient to meet the expected demand, and whether the demand is sufficient to provide adequate revenues. It should also be asked whether support services are adequate. (These include: nature trails; lookout areas and blinds; parking and/or docking areas; interpretation; camping facilities; restrooms; provision of lodging, food, and vehicle fuel; waste disposal; first aid and handicapped accessibility.) It should also be considered whether the environment and the support services could handle more visitors and if so, how further development can be carried out so as to avoid overloading the carrying capacity of the natural and cultural environments.

Some parks could develop large-scale tourism in certain specific areas, while assigning other more vulnerable areas for a low-impact public, and totally prohibiting any tourism activities in certain isolated or extremely fragile areas. Clearly, different parts of a protected area (and the activities offered therein) may be suitable for different tourism activities and this should be borne in mind during the marketing phase.

Promotion

The promotional (or implementation) phase of the marketing process usually includes a variety of strategies based upon advertising, publicity, and public relations.

Paid advertisements in newspapers and magazines, on television, radio, and billboards, can be used to communicate directly with potential tourists. Travel shows, flyers, handbills, posters, and direct mail are additional means of reaching target groups. Use of each medium can be tailored to meet different budgets. Campaigns can be designed to promote an unknown tourism destination, or to change how an area is perceived, or to remind people of its benefits and attractions. The key point about advertising is that the advertiser pays in order to be able to control the message, including when it appears and how it sounds or looks. The largest ecotourist operators use advertising both in specialized publications, such as nature and outdoor recreation magazines, and in newspaper advertisements. The advertisements provide a link between the resource and the tour agency that provides the means for the tourist to visit the resource (Eagles et al., 1992).

The importance of magazines and periodicals should not be underestimated. There are literally dozens of specialized travel magazines, as well as directories and guide books which are updated every year and other periodicals, which are now available to the general public (especially in the English language) and including: European Travel Guide, Travel Today, Traveler, Trips, Travel and Leisure, Islands, Adventure Travel, Specialty Travel Index, Adventure Vacation Catalog, and Adventure Book.

Specialty Travel Index (STI), for example, is a worldwide directory of special interest and adventure travel (published twice a year) which, according to the publishers, is read by over 130,000 travel professionals in the USA. Each issue is mailed to 32,000 travel agencies, 8,000 individual agent subscribers, 900 corporate travel departments, and approximately 5,000 consumer subscribers. In a recent issue 235 activity categories were indexed, many of them relevant to nature-based tourism. Advertisements placed in such a publication are therefore guaranteed a very wide audience.

For a recent survey on ecotourism in developing countries, 230 tourism offices representing 116 developing countries, including 116 US-based embassies, 59 US-based tourism boards, and 55 promotion offices located in host countries were contacted with a request for information on nature-based tourism (Hawkins, 1992). These were some of the results:

• only 52% of the requests elicited responses; (40% of the US-based tourism promotion offices did not respond)
• USA-based offices took an average of 24 days to respond; overseas offices took over three times longer
• the nature-specific activities most frequently promoted were: wildlife viewing, hiking/trekking, birdwatching, hunting/fishing, botanical study, mountain climbing, and rafting/canoeing
• most of the respondents provided visually appealing literature (75%) but only 58% included a full-colour brochure.

Unlike advertising, publicity speaks through an intermediary — such as a travel agent, travel writer or a video film crew — to potential tourists. The park authority, community, region or host country does not control the message that will appear, but may reach a wide audience at minimal cost. Familiarization tours ("fam tours"), in which the intermediary is offered an on-site visit, is a common strategy.

Electronic media/telecommunications linkage for reservations and information retrieval/ dissemination are another increasingly important means of raising awareness. New databases are being created, such asThe Adventure Society, Adventure Atlas, The Official Recreation Guide, and Ultran (Hawkins, 1992).

Publicity can of course be manipulated to a certain extent by effective public relations (PR). A PR campaign aims to create a positive image through a mixture of media, hospitality training, VIP treatment, and other specifically designed activities. It can also be a long-term process for building goodwill and trust so that these are available if and when needed. This refers both to tourists and potential tourists who expect to receive the benefits and rewards of tourism, and to local residents who are encouraged to be hospitable.

Box 36: Survey of USA-based nature-oriented tour operators

A recent study of US-based nature-oriented tour operators provided interesting results. The operators considered that the following are limiting the growth of nature-oriented tourism: image (58%), and poor marketing (26%). US political relations with host country government, economic changes, and competition are also considered to be having a negative impact.

The same survey found that the major problems experienced by tour operators when organizing nature/adventure tours to developing countries are: international air travel (50%); local transportation (47%); political stability (44%); health and safety (38%); food services (34%), and currency fluctuations (34%). Lodging, local service suppliers, customs/visa regulations, local tour operators, local taxes or duties are also problematic.

According to the survey, the most frequent positions held by host country nationals were: guides and interpreters (20%); drivers (8%); porters (8%); cooks (6%); managers/tour operators, 8%. Overall, 78% of tour operators stated that the demand for nature-oriented travel will increase; 13% indicated it will remain at the same level and 9% did not respond. No one indicated that it would decrease.

Source: Ingram and Durst, 1989.

It is also important, in order to promote ecotourism at the different levels, to encourage the publication and distribution of a wide range of guide books, pamphlets and maps, providing detailed information for local and international ecotourists. Field guides for bird identification, species checklists, coffee-table books with colour photos and detailed descriptions of national parks, regional botanic guides, are currently all in great demand and absolutely necessary for the wider diffusion of knowledge concerning nature and ecotourism. This should be a high priority, especially in developing countries, and one in which the tourist boards and the ministries of education and the environment should actively participate. It is worth remembering that ecotourists are frequently highly-educated people who read widely.

The film industry provides a key advertising component through the development of films that show the intricacies of nature in a positive and non-threatening fashion. Major motion pictures, like "Out of Africa ", "Gorillas in the Mist", and "At Play in the Fields of the Lord", as well as many well-made nature documentaries (shown especially on television) do much to incite people to visit the areas or countries described in these films.

Travel agents, airline companies (mainly through their on-board magazines and videos), tour operators, hotels, and conservation NGOs also have an important role to play. However, no matter what mix of promotion strategies is used, it is worth remembering that it is easier to create a positive image than it is to rectify a negative image.

But what of natural disasters and political crises? Tourists on-site or potential tourists who learn of a disaster or crises through the mass media can require special attention. There are a few basic rules to follow in the event of a crisis:

• First, verify and report what really is happening.
• Have as few spokespersons as possible. They should be readily available to the media, emphasize the positive, but be honest and straightforward about the negative.
• After the crisis has passed, use the media to distribute information about the changed situation. Re-establish a positive (and honest) image.
• Plan an activity, such as a celebration or project, to restore the community's and tourist's vision of the future of the area.

Architects and other planners must take transportation into account when designing physical facilities for tourists, whether access is by air, as in Hato Piñero Private Reserve in Venezuela (65); by boat, as in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Australia (Cairns to Green Island) (66); or by train, as in the Sierra Tarahumara, Chihuahua, Mexico (67)

Box 37: Assisting ecotourism operators

Ecotourism often operates on a small scale which can mean that tour operators need more assistance than large-scale operators who have ready access to considerable financial backing and expertise. To ensure a reliable product and at the same time promote sustainable tourism, the following suggestions for governments or regional authorities could prove useful.

• Publicize illustrative case studies of good practice from elsewhere, in particular, examples of good practice that tour operators can emulate.
• Encourage joint initiatives between enterprises. Two or more companies may be able to pool their activities or knowledge, to the benefit of all concerned. For example, the owner of a hotel or other accommodation could work with a bicycle rental company to create a joint promotional package, in order to attract visitors interested in combining the two.
• Aid the development of trade bodies. Trade organizations and similar representative bodies are very useful in strengthening the "voice" of tour operators. Additionally, such organizations can facilitate information distribution, promote joint marketing efforts, develop self-regulating mechanisms, etc. Self-regulation can be particularly valuable since protected area services are not always able (due to financial or legal limitations) to monitor and control the activities of the tour operators. The Dartmoor Tourist Association (see pages 119-120) has developed a "green charter" which outlines the objectives and operating principles of its organization's members.
• Provide advisory services and financial incentives, including development aid.

Source: adapted from Denman (1992).

Education and interpretation

Educational and interpretive services can be a fundamental component of the protected area experience. Many people come to a protected area with little or no understanding of it, the protected area system, conservation, or even humankind's role in the environment. During their visit tourists will almost always learn something about these issues. In protected areas where tourism is permitted and/or encouraged, managers are in a unique position to influence and shape this learning process. Furthermore, they may be able to not only increase visitors' understanding and appreciation of what they are experiencing but also to increase their commitment to the preservation of natural resources.

Frequently, tourists have a wide range of objectives when visiting protected areas, of which learning is only one. They will also have different types of learning in mind. Many visitors seek simply to increase their self-knowledge by visiting wilderness areas. Others wish to improve their understanding of the natural environment. Still others want the freedom to pick and choose their learning activities, according to their existing knowledge base or interests. But carefully planned and well-organized interpretive programmes can satisfy many different needs and greatly enhance a visitor's experience. The key is to provide the framework and opportunities.

Topics and target groups

Generally, interpretive services in protected areas deal with subjects such as ecological processes, local flora and fauna, and regional geography. Thus the interpretive centre in the Kanha National Park in India (see Box 38) has an audio-visual programme that recreates what a visitor might experience during a night visit to a forest in the park (normally off limits after dark).

For Watson (1992) and Berkmuller (1992), interpretive programmes generally cover:

• protected area information and orientation, including rules and regulations, activity opportunities, and major attractions
• understanding and appreciation of park resources
• opportunities to examine and clarify personal conservation ethics in relation to the park resources.

However, virtually any topic is suitable for interpretation. At a park in the USA, interpretive services address such controversial issues as slavery.

Nature-based tourism provides many opportunities for on-site education and interpretative programmes. Such programmes can play a very important role in the management of protected areas, acquainting their visitors with the values of what is being protected, and the short- and long-term benefits of protecting them.

Yet as Patten (1992) has pointed out, so far minimal attention has been given to sustainability issues in interpretive and educational material provided by protected areas, despite the number of people coming into contact with it. Yet encouraging or requiring tourists to minimize the impacts they have on a protected area while visiting it — by limiting water use, avoiding particularly fragile areas, etc. — could be a practical method of educating people about sustainability issues. (Similarly, low-impact design of protected area facilities — for example for grey-water usage and solid waste management — may also heighten visitor awareness of the need to minimize impacts on protected areas and for sustainability.)

Interpretive services are not necessarily aimed only at visitors, however. Focusing on protected areas in less developed countries (LDCs) in Latin America and the Caribbean, Ham (1992) identifies two main strategic audiences for interpretive programmes in addition to national and foreign tourists:

• influential groups and citizens (e.g. local opinion leaders, military, clergy and political decision makers)
• local people (e.g. subsistence-level populations living in or adjacent to protected areas.

Fig. 12: Interpretive Centre in Hyland Lake Park Reserve.

Source: Manly, 1977.

Box 38: Kanha National Park Interpretive Centre

Millions of people visit India's parks every year. Yet interpretive facilities are very few. However, the Centre for Environmental Education in Ahmedabad, near the Kanha National Park, established the country's first systematic interpretive programme, on behalf of the Indian Government. The project to develop the centre was initiated in 1984 and completed in 1991.

Prior to its establishment, preliminary studies identified the following issues regarding interpretive facilities in the park:

• the managers' lack of understanding of interpretation and its potential benefits
• the managers' opinion that tourists were undesirable
• the belief that interpretive services are expensive and unaffordable
• poor understanding and appreciation of the skills and techniques necessary for interpretation
• minimal availability of scientific data
• lack of time
• little management continuity (between consecutive administrations)
• lack of suitable case studies or examples.

A new interpretation programme was seen partly as a means of addressing many of these problems. At its inception, it was decided that the centre would be created using resources available in India, in order to demonstrate what could be done with sufficient commitment and effort. With the exception of the support from the United States National Park Service, no foreign consultants, designers or managers were employed on the project. Neither were any imported products used. Quality was stressed, and by creatively applying indigenous skills and technology, a world-class interpretive centre was established.

The Kanha interpretive programme consists of two visitor centres, two orientation centres, improved signage, publications, maintenance manuals, curatorial notebooks, souvenirs and environmental education material. The interpretive centre has a wide range of sophisticated features. The most popular is the "Wait Until Dark" exhibit. The 20-minute sound-and-light programme recreates the sights and sounds of the forest as might be experienced by somebody stranded in the forest, climaxing with a visit by a tiger.

The centre has been very successful in demonstrating domestic Indian abilities and in encouraging other park managers to realize the potential of their interpretive centres. It has also greatly increased interest in interpretation within India's park system as a whole since the project is highly visible and the agency responsible for its development readily identifiable. The expertise in planning, design, fabrication, and construction built up during the project will be

disseminated to other interpretive projects by the staff, through training programmes and consultation. Expertise has also been developed in how best to work with the diverse groups of local people, administrators, government agencies and suppliers that become involved in any such activities.

Perhaps most significantly, the Kanha interpretive programme was designed as a cooperative venture between managers and the local peoples who had been relocated from the park when the park was designated. Unusually, funds earned by the park from entrance fees and proceeds from the souvenir stands are retained by the park for its own purposes. This contributes significantly to the enthusiasm of park management for the success of the project. Local people provide most of the labour within the park (as drivers, guides, etc.) which allows them to benefit directly from the activity within the park and helps to ensure their continued support.

Source: Adapted from Karkaria, 1992

In terms of the former, increased support for a protected area may result from an increased understanding of its values as provided by an interpretive service. Ultimately, this can lead to enhanced protection of an area or greater allocation of resources for its maintenance.

Local people can benefit from an interpretive programme, if, for instance, it increases their understanding of how they can contribute to the protection of an area's natural resources upon which they depend for subsistence or some form of income (through harvesting of natural products, for instance). Indeed, there is growing evidence that on-site interpretive programmes in developing countries serve a strategic environmental education function. By contrast, in developed countries, the emphasis is rather on providing a service for visitors. This is not to say that interpretive programmes in developed countries do not serve both purposes. Interpretation's role both as a visitor service and as an environmental education activity is well established in developed countries. And serving national and foreign visitors is certainly an accepted goal of interpretive programmes in many developing countries (Ham, 1992).

Interpretive media

Interpretive services are provided through many different media. Choice of media will depend on the resources available and the desired objectives. Evidently, a developed-country model of interpretation (using sophisticated electronic media and aimed at a literate, ethnic-majority, middle-class, pleasure-seeking audience) may not be appropriate in less developed contexts. Differences in culture, customs, socio-economic conditions and other factors have therefore led many less developed countries to evolve their own specialized approaches to protecting natural resources, ecotourism, and on-site interpretation. And interpretation need not require vast sums of money. Small signs with the common and scientific names of trees will be sufficient for a short nature walk. Larger signs or displays can be used in addition to stress the importance of particular sites or issues. These do not require considerable resources either. Another inexpensive alternative is to use discreet markers with numbers corresponding to sections in a guidebook purchased or collected at the visitor centre. If more money becomes available, lectures or films at a visitor centre can be considered.

Berkmuller (1992) suggests creating a mobile team of specialists to provide professional assistance to protected areas within a region. The team consisting of a carpenter/signmaker, graphic artist, and a specialist in recreation management with proven writing skills would travel from site to site, to update and improve interpretive facilities and materials and train local managers and rangers. This could be a highly cost-effective approach.

Examples of more sophisticated interpretation are provided by the US National Park Service (USNPS), which has integrated interpretation into the services it provides for visitors ever since it was founded in 1961. Park infrastructure, for example, is planned around interpretive objectives. A trail, for example, may be laid out so that hikers see a number of different stages in the evolution of a mountain pond into a meadow during their hike (Patten, 1992).

Fig. 13: Exhibit room of the Poás National Park Interpretive Centre, Costa Rica. Source: Putney, 1974.

But whatever type of interpretation is selected, it should help the visitor relate the interpretive content to some experience. As Tilden (1957, quoted by Ham, 1992) states: "Any interpretation that does not somehow relate what is being displayed or described to something within the personality or experience of the visitor [audience] will be sterile". It is therefore important to obtain as much information about the visitor as possible. For example, visitors to the urban national parks in New York City and San Francisco in the USA may not have any previous experience of other types of protected area. Their interpretive needs will be substantially different from seasoned travellers visiting a game park in Eastern Africa. If park managers answer the questions in Box 35, they will find it easier to create interpretive programmes that address the needs of tourists effectively. Admittedly, however, gathering even basic information can be a challenge for poorly financed protected areas.

Ecotourism training

There are many training programmes world-wide that focus on aspects of tourism. Ecotourism is a new area of interest and expertise, however, and as such requires serious, intensive training at all levels. Protected area managers and support staff, park rangers, government authorities, politicians, tour operators, tour guides (international and local), travel agents, hotel and restaurant owners and managers, investors and entrepreneurs, conservationists, and local communities, all require special training programmes if they are to participate effectively in the ecotourism process. In all cases, the interdisciplinary and multisectoral aspects of ecotourism should be emphasized, although the training programme for each individual category will differ in orientation and degree of complexity.

Roads inside protected areas should be low-impact, and preferably (if the climate permits) with a dirt or gravel surface, as in Doñana National Park, Spain (68). Roads should not lead to the very edge of an ecotourism attraction: in Volcán Masaya National Park, Nicaragua, the parking lot is only a few metres from the crater rim, and mars the landscape which is one of the main features of the park (69). In Tulum National Park, Quintana Roo, Mexico, noisy buses park right at the entrance to the Mayan archeological site (70).

Nature trails should be inviting and at the same time show clearly where the tourist may walk, as in Punta Tombo Nature Reserve in Patagonia, Argentina (where fencing keeps tourists away from penguin nesting areas) (71). Boardwalks are particularly appropriate in mangrove and other wetland situations, as in Everglades National Park, USA (72).

Box 39: Factors that limit the effectiveness of interpretive programmes

• Misallocation of effort: Do we interpret at times and places suited to our visitors? Do we present the same information repeatedly to a large percentage of repeat visitors?
• Working against usual behaviour patterns: Do we utilize intragroup communication or work against it?
• Inadequate attention to visitor motivation: Do we consider how interpretation will reward our visitors or only what we think should be communicated and how it should be communicated?
• Mismatch of messages to visitors: Do we recognize the diverse ages, backgrounds and interests among our visitors, or do we aim at a "standardized" visitor?
• Failure to monitor the effectiveness of our efforts: Do we clearly state what we hope to accomplish with interpretation? If our objectives are clear, what feedback mechanisms do we use to establish whether we are accomplishing these objectives?

Source: Adapted from Machlis and Field (1984), cited by M.D. Watson (1992).

Training programmes may be set up by a wide variety of agencies: governmental, nongovernmental, commercial or academic. But all training endeavours seek the same general objectives: improvement of skills, development of understanding, increase in motivation, and effective use of resources.

An example of a well planned ecotourism training programme is that of the Alternative Travel Group (ATG). This ecotour company, based in England, decided in 1989 to initiate a training programme of the highest standard for guides and managers who accompany clients through environmentally sensitive areas. The ultimate aim is to establish international standards, acceptance of which could profoundly alter various aspects of tourism and help resolve many of its endemic problems. The strategy from a business point of view is to spend money on training (rather than on marketing), to achieve high-quality results and allow the excellence of the product to sell itself.

With no training model or financial resources for outside help or consultancy, the directors of ATG were obliged to develop the training themselves. This included finding training solutions in previously unconsidered areas. ATG provides a week's basic training at an Oxford College (in the UK). Trainees are not subjected to formal teaching or structured induction. Instead, constantly exposed and under pressure, they engage in role plays, group discussions, presentations and practical work to cover a wide variety of subjects, ranging from communication skills to group dynamics, to moral and ethical situations, to environmental issues, to first aid.

Box 40: Hospitality training at the community level

To ensure a climate of hospitality on a community-wide basis, formal training is often necessary — especially for front-line service providers who have direct contact with visitors at lodging and eating establishments, in shops, at tourism attractions and information centres. The following components are key:

• An accurate information base. This should include an understanding of the economic impact of tourism and the motivations of various types of traveller. It should also include information about visitor facilities, attractions and things to do for all ages and in various price ranges, general aspects of the environment (natural and cultural), information about health care facilities, transportation services, plus details about what is and will be happening in the area.
• Basic skills. Including listening skills, handling complaints and solving problems, responding to inquiries, and accurately providing directions.
• Positive attitudes. This includes enthusiasm, friendliness, diplomacy, patience, flexibility, sincerity, and a willingness to respond to visitor expectations.
• The extras that make a difference. This includes being able to appreciate and interpret the uniqueness of the area including its landscape, flora and fauna, ethnic diversity, traditional farming practices, cultural activities, locally produced art and other products, as well as a sense of the place through familiarity with its stories, mythology, and geography.

The following questions, when discussing and planning hospitality training at the community level should prove useful:

• Who will receive this training? Owners and manager? Front-line staff?
• What skills is it particularly important to develop? What objectives must be accomplished? How much information must be included? What is the level of expertise or prior training of the participants? (It is worth remembering that most adults learn best in 'participatory' rather than 'formal teaching' settings.)
• Who could conduct the training most effectively? One person? A team of subject-specific trainers? Can a cadre of trainers be developed for follow-up and refresher sessions?
• Where will the training be conducted? In a workshop setting? In the field for some segments of the instruction?
• When will training be conducted? Just prior to the peak tourism season? During a single day? In short segments spread over a period of time? What follow-up will be necessary?
• How can participants be recognized for their efforts? With a certificate of completion? Can formal certification standards be established?

Source: Mainly adapted from McIntyre and Hetherington, WTO, 1991

At the end of the course each participant submits a thesis comprising a study of an area (usually one in which they will be working/have worked), illustrating their knowledge of the environment (both natural and cultural) and its particular or unique importance, outlining the problems of man's impacts upon the environment, and proposing a policy for conservation and sustainable development with particular regard to tourism. Specific guidelines for the structure and content of the thesis are provided (Alternative Travel Group, 1992; Whinney and Reggiori, 1992).

In some countries, ecotourism is beginning to be considered a professional (university-level) field of expertise. Educational programmes are accordingly being established. In Guatemala, for example, the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala has recently launched its BA course on Ecotourism, with a five-year curriculum. In Costa Rica, the Universidad Latinoamericana de Ciencia y Desarrollo (ULACYD) now offers a master's course in ecotourism, for Latin American graduate students. The George Washington University (in conjunction with The Ecotourism Society) has organized Ecotourism Management Workshops as part of its Graduate Programme in Tourism Administration (Ceballos-Lascuráin, 1993b).

The Countryside Commission (UK), in particular, believes in the importance of training. It describes training as having an "important role in making a beautiful and accessible countryside for the future. The countryside and the policies, techniques and management approaches related to it are changing rapidly, which makes continuing training essential for everyone involved in shaping and managing it. Their training should reflect the diversity of interests and uses involved..." The Countryside Commission strongly believes that for training to be effective, action is needed on the part of the Commission itself, and on the part of many other sectors (including tourism), organizations and individuals. In the Commission's view, employers and managers, educators and trainers, and staff and volunteers, have much to contribute in this area. It has produced a leaflet setting out codes of practice for each category (Countryside Commission, 1991a).

In some cases, relatively little training is required to produce substantial results. For example, local people living in or near protected areas often possess enormous traditional natural and cultural knowledge of their local environment. With some basic training, they can become knowledgeable ecotour guides, who can work individually or collaboratively with the tour guide of the visiting group. Apart from providing these individuals with employment and possibly a better standard of living, the level of local environmental awareness may be raised.

Planning physical facilities for tourism in protected areas

Architects bear a special responsibility for the design of facilities that are to be constructed on or adjacent to Earth's last unspoiled areas. But this is not a responsibility that will necessarily be communicated to the architects by the developer or even by government agencies. Indeed, there are presently no comprehensive building design standards for ecotourism facilities or for scientific/educational facilities in or near protected areas, although the United States National Park Service has drawn up a programme to foster sustainable facilities (see Box 41). Thus until the time when adequate and design guidelines are widely adopted, it will fall to architects and their clients to draw up their own standards. A basic rule to follow, however, is that nature-based design should aim to enhance the sensitivity of the ecotourist, scientist or student, as well as to provide respite and comfort in environments that are often hostile to humans. Architects should also bear in mind that they may need to provide guidance for owners and developers of nature-based facilities as to the potential uses of a facility, other than that for which it was primarily designed. Providing multipurpose spaces, for example, can open up a variety of programmatic opportunities for ecotourism operators and educational institutions or bodies (Andersen, 1992).

A new approach to architectural design and construction technology is required for the physical planning of ecotourism centres. Ecotourism centres are often located in or very near natural areas that are characterized by a fragile and delicate ecological balance. They are also often located in relatively isolated areas, with difficult access. Considerable thought therefore needs to be applied to the planning of such facilities.

It is evident that all buildings, roads, and service systems should be designed in such a way that environmental impact is minimized and a certain level of functional self-sufficiency attained. What can loosely be termed "ecotechniques" should be used whenever possible. Such techniques include: solar energy, capture and utilization of rain-water, recycling of waste, natural cross-ventilation (instead of air conditioning), self-sufficiency in food production (through use of orchards, "ecological farms", aquaculture, etc.), use of underground wiring, use of locally available building materials and native technologies, and the blending of architectural shapes with the natural environment. Buildings, in other words, must not overpower or try to compete with the surrounding land and plant forms, which after all constitute the main attractions, together with the wildlife (and, in some cases, ancient architectural remains or typical villages with vernacular architecture). (Appendix XI gives an example of an architectural programme for an ecotourism centre.)

Accommodation for nature-oriented tourists must be modest but comfortable, clean but unpretentious. This gives an added advantage to ecotourism over conventional leisure tourism: the cost of an ecotourism centre is about four times lower per room unit compared to a five-star resort hotel (Ceballos-Lascuráin, 1986). Notwithstanding, many ecotourists from industrialized countries are willing to pay rates as high as those corresponding to deluxe accommodations in the city or the beach. The experience that an ecological tourist seeks when he visits a natural or exotic place is the opportunity of communion with nature or native cultures, of getting away from the concrete jungle and the luxuries and commodities of modern urban, "civilized", life.

The role of the architect is to set the stage for continued conservation and to foster sensitivity to the environment through design efforts. There is always a danger of involvement of the "insensitive design professional". The pristine environment of a tropical rain forest is no place to make an "architectural ego statement" inconsistent with the setting. It is important for the architect to put ego aside and draw inspiration from nature and the uniqueness of the particular project site.

Hotels and lodges for ecotourism must be built to conform with their surroundings. A high-rise in a natural forest would not only be foolish but dangerous for the ecosystem. Discotheques in ecotourism hotels are completely out of place.

Designs should also recognize the challenges of building in areas full of termites, rodents, and snakes. Study of local building techniques often reveals unique approaches for dealing with "unwanted guests" in the human habitat. Seismic design considerations should also be taken into account, although the small scale and flexibility of building materials often makes this less of an issue than in dense urban areas.

That said, the challenge for many park designers today is to find ways of using new technologies in the retrofitting of existing facilities. Major technological advances in energy efficiency, water conservation, noise and air pollution abatement, solid waste management, and the use of non-toxic substances in construction have changed the face of design during the last decade. By taking advantage of them, designers can improve the sustainability of many existing facilities (Patten, 1992).

Local labour and materials should be used but designs should recognize the possible limitations of local labour forces, and take into account possible problems with availability of indigenous materials. This requires that the architect visits local labourers to assess their capabilities and to review local building materials and techniques (Andersen, 1992).

Fig. 14: Proposed Ecotourism Centre.

Source: Mexico Journal 11(32), 22 May.

If budgets are limited, it is a good idea to start with simple but well-built camps of bamboo, thatch, etc., which it may be possible to replace later with more permanent structures. But plans should take future growth of the facility into account so as to minimize future reconstruction and waste. A subjective evaluation, or "feel", must also be applied in determining development size and capacity. For example, care must be taken not to cause a natural landscape to take on an urban character or a cultural landscape to lose its place within the historical context.²

Box 41: US National Park Service and sustainable design

Standards and practices to minimize the impact of development on protected area environments should be a matter of policy. The US National Park Service is currently initiating a system-wide programme to foster sustainable facility design, construction, and maintenance. The programme will focus on:

• buildings with an emphasis on solar orientation, configuration, technology, and visual compatibility with the natural environment
• transportation and circulation with an emphasis on alternative transportation systems such as biking, walking, rowboating, horseriding, etc., directional and informational signs, and road and surface parking standards
• utility systems with an emphasis on: energy-efficient heating, cooling and lighting; water conservation; waste-water treatment; and solid waste management including recycling
• the reduction of on-site and off-site development impacts on air, water, and sound quality
• methods for educating visitors on the subject of sustainable design and development.

The US programme will tailor design and development methods to particular environments and incorporate current conservation technologies to the fullest extent possible.³

Source: Patten (1992).

In some locations, the timing of construction work is critical. The rainy season in rain forest areas, for example, may all but preclude construction activities. Work in progress may experience serious erosion problems if planning fails to anticipate and allow for weather conditions.

Design criteria for tourism facilities in protected areas⁴

The following criteria may be useful when designing or planning facilities for tourism in or near protected areas. The topics (zoning, site plans, building technology, design for the disabled, refuse treatment, transport and circulation, nature trails, miscellaneous) described below should be considered at length. The sections on site plans and building technology are presented mainly as a set of guidelines or principles.

Especially good architectural design (not necessarily elaborate) is required in interpretive centres, as is shown by this example from Doñana National Park, in Spain (73).

Zoning

Once the boundaries of a protected area have been set, a system for evaluating and classifying land and water areas (i.e. zoning) becomes necessary. Zoning is the process of applying different management objectives and regulations to different parts or zones of a protected area (see Chapter 5 for a full description of zoning).

Blinds (hides) and observatories in protected areas are very useful for viewing wildlife. Good examples are found in Basse-Casamance National Park, Senegal (74), and Abuko Nature Reserve, Gambia (75).

Fig. 15: Examples of zoning for tourism facilities.

Source: Richman. 1990.

"Tourism zones" should contain representative samples of the park's important resources available for visitor appreciation. Such zones are sometimes divided into two types: extensive use zones (where park infrastructure, such as roads, trails, simple camp grounds and vista clearing, is permitted for low-density recreational use) and intensive use zones (which can tolerate relatively high concentrations of visitors). The latter, usually comprising a small percentage of the park's area, will contain most of its visitor services, such as paved roads - if any-visitor centre, visitor supply store, formal camp grounds and overnight accommodation (if present). Because of the intensive use to which they are subject, these zones are those most affected by visitor use. They should therefore receive considerable management attention. The protected area authority should establish standards for tourism developments in the tourism zones so that the attractions of the protected area are enhanced. This usually requires that facilities are the minimum required to promote visitor enjoyment and safety, as well as resource protection. Whenever possible, hotels, restaurants, and stores should be located outside the park boundaries so as to reduce human impact upon the protected area.

In the case of biosphere reserves, zoning also includes core zones (in which uses are strictly controlled and no development is permitted) and buffer zones (in which various types of harvesting may be permitted, such as firewood collection and hunting). The management authorities often have to resolve conflicts between incompatible land-uses in buffer zones; between strict nature conservation and agricultural settlement. An essential feature of a buffer zone, according to UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB, 1974), and one which may well serve as justification of a reserve to land management agencies, is its inclusion of areas for educational programmes, tourism, and other purposes designed to foster appreciation of the biome.

Siteplans

All elements of the site plan must have a purpose and take into account:

• the relation of the protected area to its surroundings
• the relation of the facility to the use area and surrounding zones
• its relation to any other facilities on the site
• its relation to the overall objectives of the protected area's master plan

and should:

• avoid superfluous elements
• satisfy both form and function.

The site plan should also ensure that facilities are suited to the function of the place, its scale and the users.

The size and capacity of the protected area facilities should be determined on the basis of such limiting factors as space, water and energy availability, ecological vulnerability of area, access, and general site conditions including visual compatibility. (A facility is considered sustainable when it does not exceed the "budget" of any of these limiting factors.) Therefore:

• design within the constraints of the resource
• balance economic, human, technical and resource values
• recognize technical requirements (size, quantity, standards, orientation in terms of weather, convenience of access, utility costs)
• design for year-round use whenever possible
• study the long-term implications of providing facilities, such as changing demands and technology, and continuing maintenance.

Signs at the beginning of, or along, nature trails should communicate useful information to visitors, and also be attractively designed, as in the Parc des Volcans d'Auvergne, France (76), and in Punta Tombo Nature Reserve, southern Argentina (77).

Site configuration is important. It determines the use patterns in an area and the sequence in which park features are presented to visitors. To promote sustainability therefore, configurations should be clustered, with all major facilities located within a half mile or so of one another and organized so that roads, trails, utilities, and other infrastructure, can be shared. Patterns that include vehicle movement require major investment in infrastructure such as roads and bridges and should therefore be avoided. Since dispersed developments require separate utility systems, and their maintenance and operational costs are greater than those of consolidated sites, these should also be avoided. Walking, biking, rowboating and other energy-efficient forms of transport should be the primary modes of movement. The sequence of information and interpretation should be arranged so that duplication, conflict and the need to retrace one's path are minimized.

Special care should be taken when planning trails through untouched areas. It is prudent to hire a naturalist to help place the trail system to minimize disruption of wildlife and plant biosystems. Special attention should be paid to animals that rely on trees as aerial pathways or for habitat. Careful consideration should be given to the placement of access roads. A civil engineer should be involved in the design of those trails for which erosion control may be an issue.

Examples of bad siting include roads that block the flow of streams and thereby cause erosion on hillsides, structures which frighten wildlife away from waterholes, and effluent drains that pollute natural waterways. Siting of buildings should also take functional considerations into account. For example, guards will not inhabit posts unless they are serviced by reasonable access and water readily available. Before buildings are sited, thought should be given to their accessibility and user flow. Tourist facilities should be separated from the administrative and workshop areas of a park headquarters if the two are not to interfere with each other. Facilities should be constructed and managed so that they can serve as a positive means of controlling and directing use. In some areas only day-use facilities will be appropriate.

Spacing of buildings should allow for wildlife patterns of movement and forest growth. Site lighting should be limited and controlled to avoid disruption of wildlife diurnal and nocturnal cycles. Trees can be planted to provide shade, control erosion, and enhance the landscape, and to provide habitats for birds, lizards, frogs and other wildlife.

Fig. 16: Site plan for Tropical Youth Centre, Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica.

Source: Andersen 1992.

Wherever possible old, traditional buildings (many of which may have fallen into disuse as a result of changes in farming and other practices), should be conserved; for example, by restoring and converting them to ecotourism facilities. Indeed, if no other means for preservation is practical, sympathetic conversion should be encouraged. (In Europe, especially, this has become common practice, providing very attractive and appropriate facilities that harmonize with their surroundings.) Additionally, old existing boundaries, such as stone walls and hedges, as found in the Peak District National Park in England, for example, constitute very important and attractive landscape features, and should be preserved.

Man-made structures should interfere as little as possible with the natural ecosystem and maintenance of the ecosystem should take priority over view or dramatic "design statements". Therefore:

• buildings and structures should be sited so as to avoid cutting significant trees and to minimize disturbance of other natural features
• whenever feasible, facilities should be located on perimeters.

New facilities should preferably be designed and constructed in the local style. Local inhabitants should be encouraged to provide input for their design, and local craftsmen and artists employed for their construction. This will help to create a sense of ownership and acceptance of tourist facilities within the community.

Fig. 17: Site plan, interpretive facilities, Poás Volcano National Park.

Source: Putney, 1974.

Buildings should blend with their surroundings and, if possible be screened by natural bluffs or groves of trees. For example, if a visitor's lodge is sited on a ridge with a commanding view over the whole area, the building will be visible from many angles. But if it is sited below the horizon, is single-storeyed and sombre in colour, it will be far less obtrusive. In tropical areas especially, attention should be paid to insect, reptile and rodent control. The design approach should minimize opportunities for intrusion so that the need to kill "pests" is avoided.

Fig. 18: Ideal site plan for interpretive centre.

Source: Ashbaugh and Kordish, 1971.

Design techniques and materials

"Low tech" design solutions should be used whenever possible. Building designs should use local architectural shapes, construction techniques and materials whenever they are environmentally appropriate. And they should be based on long-term environmental rather than short-term financial considerations. Construction specifications should reflect environmental concerns regarding use of wood products and other building materials. Designers should also strive to use locally available materials (provided they do not entail complex, energy-intensive manufacturing processes), wood from managed forests, and recycled and non-toxic materials in their designs. Use of construction materials that include chemical elements such as formaldehyde or arsenic should be avoided. In general, it is not advisable to purchase building materials or furniture made from teak, mahogany, rosewood, ebony, iroko, or other rare tropical woods. Whenever possible, alternatives such as oak, pine, cherry, birch, maple or other available sustainable lumbers to avoid further destruction of tropical rain forests should be used. Interior furnishing and equipment should use local resources unless special-purpose furnishings or equipment are called for.

Fig. 19: Main lodge, Lapa Ríos resort project. Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica.

Source: Andersen, 1992.

Care should be taken to ensure efficient and safe operating of facilities. Water and energy conservation and waste treatment technologies can significantly reduce the stress on a site, lower operating costs, and thereby increase site capacity. In most protected areas, sustainable development requires conservation and wise use of water. In arid areas lack of water can severely restrict visitor use. Even in protected areas in which water is not in short supply, care must be taken to minimize the amounts withdrawn from local watersheds. It is very important, especially in isolated areas, to collect and recycle rainwater, as well as stream water. (Small reservoirs, that do not alter natural water flow substantially, can be created). Use of low-flow toilets and those requiring no water (or simply putting a brick in an ordinary toilet to displace and save water), and use of special showerheads, faucets and other water-saving technologies and practices, can reduce water consumption by as much as 50%.

Fig. 20: Typical duplex dwelling unit, Lapa Ríos resort project; Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica. Source: Andersen, 1992.

Fig. 21: Site plan residential and maintenance area, Poás Volcano National Park, Costa Rica. Source: Ugalde et al., 1974.

Natural cross-ventilation should be encouraged. Air-conditioning consumes considerable energy, is noisy and unhealthy and should therefore be avoided. Landscape elements should be placed to enhance natural ventilation of facilities. If local temperatures are unbearably high, ceiling fans can be installed. "Bioclimatic" design which takes advantage of dominant winds, shading, natural insulation, and so on, should be used to create, for example, "cold" rooms for the conservation of food items. Design should take rainy and dry seasons and changing solar angles into account. Windows and doors should be insulated to reduce cooling or heat loss. Shades, drapes, shutters or awnings can be provided to reduce excessive heat.

Energy efficiency should be a major consideration in the design of ecotourism facilities. Southern exposure and protection from northern winds in the northern hemisphere (the reverse in the southern hemisphere), energy storage through building materials and massing, construction of passive solar collectors, and planting of seasonal vegetation, are all elements of sustainable building. In most tropical or subtropical areas, due to the high solar angle, it is very appropriate to use solar energy. Flat-plate solar collectors to heat water, combined with thermally-insulated tanks (for storing hot water), are inexpensive and highly efficient. In isolated areas, far from traditional electricity supply, the use of photovoltaic cells for converting solar energy into electric energy presents a valid option.⁵ Air-to-air exchangers, greywater heat reclamation, and geothermal storage and supply are other technologies that can be used to conserve energy. Installation of low-watt incandescent or fluorescent light bulbs, and sensors which turn lights off automatically when rooms are empty will also contribute to efficient use of energy.

Fig. 22(a) and 22(b): Sustainable development research and education centre, adjacent to Maho Bay camps, US Virgin Islands. General perspective (a) and section (b).

Source: Selengut, 1992

Fig. 23: Exterior design concept for Monteverde la Calandria Hotel, Santa Elena, Costa Rica.

Source: Andersen, 1992

Fig. 24: Estate Concordia, St John, US Virgin Islands. Section.

Source: Selengut, 1992.

It is wise to plan for future growth of the facility to minimize future demolition and waste. Also, facilities should be provided to accommodate "messy" activities (boot scrapers, outdoor showers, minimum storage for travel gear such as backpacks, boots and other camping equipment, etc.).

Design for the disabled

Facilities for disabled individuals should be provided wherever possible. However, note that the rugged nature of some nature-based tourism activities and sites unfortunately precludes access for many disabled persons. In many of the more developed countries, much progress has been made in the last few decades to provide handicapped persons with access to many amenities, including national parks. In the USA, The Architectural Barriers Act of 1968 and the National Rehabilitation Act of 1973 required, respectively, that all (new and renovated) facilities and all programmes receiving some form of federal funding, be made accessible to persons with disabilities. However, it was not until the passage of the 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act that the mandate for equal access was extended to include the private sector.

In other countries, considerably progress remains to be made in terms of providing facilities in protected areas for the disabled. But adoption of the following principles could contribute to such progress.

• Access to protected areas for disabled people should be the responsibility of the protected area manager. Cangemi et al., (1992) suggest the following strategies when striving to ensure accessibility:
• use a comprehensive systems approach (i.e. barrier-free design should be an integral part of the planning process)
• acquire in-house knowledge of the concepts, laws and accessibility specifications
• include persons with disabilities and a qualified access specialist on the planning team
• whenever possible go beyond minimum standards
• extend accessibility beyond the immediate vicinity of core facilities
• include commercial recreation and hospitality industries on the planning team when planning for accessibility.
• Although design often calls for unique solutions to specific demands, the adoption of key strategies facilitates the process. According to Cangemi et al. (op. cit.), designers should:
• incorporate accessibility in areas that present different levels of difficulty
• plan for a continuous path of travel
• retain environmental and aesthetic values while incorporating access
• learn at first-hand whether building materials and supplies perform as claimed
• consider access for persons with auditory, visual and other difficulties (i.e. not only those with mobility disabilities), in order to make facilities and programmes truly accessible to all.

Accessibility to recreational trails is particularly important. Issues that should be considered include: type of surface, slope and cross-slope, placement of amenities (restrooms, benches, drinking-water fountains, etc.) and the provision of information. Cangemi et al. (1992) note that although the provision of a continuous path of travel is an obvious need, it is the most commonly misunderstood concept. The accessibility of points A and C is meaningless if point B between presents a barrier. For example, an otherwise accessible restroom becomes inaccessible to a person with difficulty grasping objects if the restroom door has a knob instead of lever.

Refuse treatment

The following principles should be followed in order to ensure satisfactory disposal of refuse:

• provide for environmentally sound methods of removal of waste and treatment
• provide secure waste storage
• ensure source reduction of waste (this is especially important in industrialized countries where about one-third of all waste consists of packaging
• recycle whenever possible, especially if the location in question is isolated
• create drip-irrigation system for waste-water recycling to encourage vegetation growth
• use systems that allow organic waste to be separated from inorganic waste.

Where appropriate, organic refuse can be converted, through simple and cheap domestic methods, into compost, which constitutes an excellent fertilizer, to be applied in orchards, vegetable gardens and "ecological farms". (This will contribute to food self-sufficiency.) Compost can also be used for landscape reclamation and erosion control. Composting toilets have been used in park areas in the USA for a number of years, and the technology has been improved considerably. Although not yet in use in protected areas, solar aquatic systems and marshlands specifically created for wastewater treatment are being developed and used experimentally by some US municipal governments. Once the technology has improved, it should be possible to adapt it for protected area use.

Dry toilets (also known as composting toilets) should be encouraged in all ecotourism and park facilities. A composting toilet consists of a large tank located directly below the toilet room. Wastes enter the tank through a large diameter chute connecting to the toilet, and decompose in an oxygen-rich environment. No water is used for the toilet, but a bulking agent (such as wood shavings) is added to improve liquid drainage and aeration, and to provide fuel. A small fan draws air through the tank and up the vent pipe to ensure adequate oxygen for decomposition and odourless operation. Internal components (such as ducts, baffles, and rotating tines) enhance the composting process. The finished compost can be removed from the lower end of the tank about once each year. Composting toilets need a mild temperature, moisture, fuel, and air to function. Liquid may have to be added to the tank to keep the compost pile during periods of little use or a bulking agent added periodically to improve the compost texture.

The US National Park Service (USNPS) operates a pilot recycling programme in four park areas in partnership with a major chemical company. The company provides plastic, glass, and metal collection and recycles this waste into products that are useful in a protected area. Acadia National Park, for instance, has picnic tables and signposts made out of recycled plastics and will introduce other products in the future. USNPS and the chemical company jointly provide visitor information, educational programmes and publications on the subject of recycling.

Transport and circulation

Use of automobiles and other vehicles should be strictly limited within the protected area. Although in some cases roads may be built in order to bring visitors into relatively close contact with wildlife, they should avoid sensitive areas such as breeding sites or hunting grounds.

Therefore, protected area designers should:

• question the necessity of new roads and the scale of any proposed roads
• minimize road widths and design roads in such a way that slow speeds can be enforced
• promote the use of smaller service vehicles and alternative fuels
• include bicycle and pedestrian networks
• provide transportation hubs and public transportation systems (if required).

Fig. 25: Project for a shuttle train, Poás Volcano National Park, Costa Rica.

Source: Ugalde et. al., 1974.

Roads for wildlife viewing should not loop around waterholes, but rather lead to a watchtower at the edge of the waterhole. Bends in roads or raised humps can be used to control speed. (Bends can also be used to approach wildlife.) Roads should be wide enough — or have special parking places — so that cars can pull off to view wildlife without obstructing other traffic.

The following tips may help promote good management of vehicles:

• in hot climates use light-coloured cars or trucks that will reflect more sunlight, with tinted glass (or shades), in order to minimize the need for air conditioning, which in turn reduces fuel consumption and hence pollution
• keep engine filters clean to ensure efficient operation
• ensure compliance with local/regional/national regulations concerning catalytic converters and other emission controls
• ensure that all facility vehicles use the recommended gasoline octane and oil grades
• maintain correct tyre pressure for better fuel efficiency
• establish car pooling, shuttle services, park-and-ride, or other cooperative transportation programmes.

It is important to encourage transport inside protected areas that does not involve motor vehicles. Walking, bicycling, rowboating, and horseriding are all important options. Each mode of transport normally requires separate circulation and specific paths or trails.

Road and path design

There are many means of designing roads and paths so that they disturb the natural functioning of a protected area as little as possible. They include the procedures outlined below.

• Roads, paths and trails should be unobtrusive. Whenever possible, they should use the cover of dips in the land, trees, hills, and other features. They should flow with the land contours rather than cut across them. They should be designed to minimize erosion and therefore be of slight gradient and adequately drained.
• Roads should not follow river courses for long stretches, but only lead to a river at certain view-points. On mountainous terrain, the road should not follow the mountain crest, since this seriously scars the landscape; instead, the road should follow the lower slopes.
• It is better to service a group of buildings with a circular one-way flow road with a parking area set to one side, than to have two-way traffic blocking the focal area of activity.
• Park designers should pay particular attention to the effects of road gradation. Topsoil with plant components can be inadvertently moved from one vegetation community to another, thus creating an unnatural mosaic and endangering biodiversity. The Soleduck road in Olympic National Park in the USA is an excellent example of how to build or rebuild a road in natural landscape. Prior to construction of this road, plants and topsoil that could have been disturbed by construction activities were inventoried and moved. After road gradation had been completed, they were returned as closely as possible to their original sites.
• The following guidelines for road surfacing (useful mainly in temperate countries) were drawn up by the authorities of Peak District National Park (1987) in England:
• If tarmacadam or similar surfaces are to be used for roadways or footpaths, their area should not exceed the minimum required by the highway authority; careful attention should be paid to their borders with other hard materials, or with grass or shrub areas.
• The following are unsatisfactory: "blanket" areas of rolled asphalt, tarmac or poured concrete, especially in green or red; blocks and concrete flags in bright and/or unnatural colours, or in fancy shapes; concrete flags which are larger than 60 x 60 cm.
• The following types of paving are recommended for pedestrian areas: natural flagstone or setts; artificial stone or concrete flags no larger than 60 x 60 cm), preferably with exposed aggregate or a riven surface, in natural colours.
• The following can be used for both pedestrian and vehicle areas and for shared pedestrian/vehicle areas, distinguishing them from more conventional roads: poured concrete slab with exposed aggregate, but only in limited areas (this treatment could be used for car parking areas); loose gravel, or limestone chippings bound by laying on a tar-sprayed base; interlocking clay or concrete blocks in natural or darker colours. The last have several advantages. They can be produced in sizes similar to those of setts, but with a smoother overall surface; they can be produced in a variety of patterns, such as herringbone, basket weave, running bond; they can be quickly and simply laid by unskilled labour without concrete bedding or pointing; they can be taken up and relaid; their cost is comparable to that of tarmac (at least in the UK).
• Signboards can be posted along path trails to enhance appreciation of the natural environment and to establish clear rules of conduct. Additional rules can be provided (in the form of a booklet, for instance) in guest units. Restroom facilities and waste disposal collection points can be provided wherever non-guest use of trails is permitted.

Nature trails

Nature trails provide pathways into, around and through the protected area. However, the major objective of a nature trail is not to conduct visitors through an area, but rather to bring the visitor and the interpreted feature together. It is important, therefore, that nature trails are planned before construction. The following criteria should be borne in mind:

• Trail systems should respect wildlife habitats and movement patterns.
• A nature trail should be short (0.5 to 1.5 km), with a walking time of 30 to 60 minutes (so as to encourage all visitors to use it).
• A thorough survey of the area through which a trail will pass should be conducted. This will include preparing an inventory of landscapes and natural and historic features using aerial photographs, combined with ground reconnaissance surveys. (The features should be marked on a sketch map and a trail arranged so as to connect them with one another.) Expected visitor impact should be assessed, fragile features listed, and stretches that require slope stabilization, drainage or other erosion control measures noted. Existing trails should be used wherever possible, but unsuitable existing trails should be closed. The facilities to be provided (resting places, shelters, benches, litter bins, signposts, steps, culverts, bridges, picnic sites, sanitary facilities, interpretive panels, safety barriers such as rails or fences along cliff edges) should be enumerated.
• The technical aspects of construction of a trail should be reviewed with experts (e.g. alignment, excavations, drainage, materials). Construction and maintenance costs should be calculated and labour requirements estimated. A maintenance schedule should be drawn up.
• Trails should be located in such a way that the area's features and scenery can be enjoyed, and serious disturbance of the natural setting avoided. Location, alignment and grade should be selected considering both technical (soil type, bedrock, excavation, slope, drainage) and aesthetic criteria (scenic beauty, integration with natural landscape, features of interest). During construction, unnecessary damage can be avoided by supervising workers carefully. The walking area should be cleared of all obstacles and overhanging trees cut free of vegetation to a height of 2 m. Large trees should not be cut and soil should not be left denuded of all "debris". Depressions should be filled with rock or "waste" soil.
• Nature trails should not be straight but curved, wherever possible. Ideally, a nature trail should be constructed as a one-way loop beginning and ending at approximately the same location (frequently at an interpretive-orientation structure or parking area); it will be more interesting to walk along and opportunities for sighting elusive wildlife will be more numerous. Designs that "double back", and that encourage visitors to take short cuts, should be avoided. When switchbacks are required, the configuration of the terrain should be followed. Overly narrow angles should be avoided and loops made invisible (in order to prevent short-cutting and "multiple trailing"). Steep hillsides and waterlogged areas should be avoided. Slopes selected should have a gradient of no more than between 15 and 17%. (Trail construction on such slopes requires minimum excavation, scouring of soil, stabilization and drainage. Excavation of trails on slopes exceeding 60% requires costly stabilization on the inside slope.) The risk of erosion and steep gradients can be avoided by angling across slopes. Drainage should run off, not down, the trail. Water bars and drains should be installed. In some areas the trail may need to be raised on a wooden walkway or stepping stones.
• A nature trail should be inviting. It must have a clear, well-marked beginning. It should be wide and flat enough to walk along in comfort. Steep climbs, muddy places and physical obstacles should be avoided.
• A nature trail should convey interpretive information. Signs should be posted along the trail to explain salient features. Signs can contain all the desired information, or simply consist of numbers referring the visitor to an accompanying pamphlet. At least 12 features, and at most 30, should be identified for interpretation. Information should be accurate, interesting, brief, and easy to understand. In particular, ecological links between wildlife and vegetation should be highlighted, and tips given for observing wildlife that is rarely sighted. A trail entrance sign with basic information (a map and the trail's length) should be provided. Directional signs may be required at junctions. If possible, determine a theme (e.g. the noisy pitta, a bird of Australian tropical forests), and give the trail a name (e.g. "The Noisy Pitta Trail") reflecting the theme. This adds to the interest and appeal of the trail. A map must be provided, either on a sign or in a leaflet (or both). Also consider providing a checklist of "things to see along the trail". A leaflet, if used, need not be expensive but should be visually attractive and include sketches and diagrams.
•  
• Simple benches can be provided at rest stops. At stream crossings or deep gorges it may be necessary to build bridges. Steps can be cut in rock, or a fallen tree used for passage (if it is wide enough for safety). Rails or fences should be sturdy and weather-resistant, but unobtrusive and preferably constructed from local material.
• Nature trails should be clean and well-maintained. Litter bins can be provided at the entrance and at rest stops. However, it is probably best to encourage visitors to take out their litter since it may be very difficult (and expensive) to collect rubbish and process it. Vegetation and debris should regularly be removed from the trail.
• Marine and coastal parks require somewhat different approaches to interpretation, which may take the form of guided or self-guided trails. Examples include: boardwalks through coastal wetlands, signalized underwater "trails" (such as among the reefs at Buck Island National Monument in the US Virgin Islands), or underwater viewing chambers such as those found at Green Island on the Great Barrier Reef in Australia and in several marine parks in Japan.

Fig. 26: Example of nature trail layout.

Fig. 27: Cloud Forest nature trail project, Poás Volcano National Park, Costa Rica. Source: Putney, 1974

Fig. 28: Design of a built-up trail through a wet area. Source: Ashbaugh and Kordish, 1971.

Fig. 29: Trail specifications for a trail along a slope. Source: Ashbaugh and Kordish, 1971.

Fig. 30: Elevated boardwalk for a rain forest ecotourism facility. Concept drawing. Source: Andersen 1992.

Fig. 31: Observation tower for a rain forest ecotourism facility. Concept drawing. Source: Andersen 1992.

Fig. 32: Crater viewing structure, Poás Volcano National Park, Costa Rica. Source: Putney, 1974.

Miscellaneous

• Water lines should be located in such a way that soil disruption is minimized, i.e. adjacent to trails wherever possible.
• If water must be purified, simple methods such as sifting, sedimentation, filtration, or boiling, should be specified.
• Pastures and corrals for horses and other grazing stock should be located so as not to pollute water sources or watersheds.
• A clear area for emergency evacuation of snake-bite victims or other medical emergencies should be designated. Regular on-site operation of helicopter or other air services should be discouraged.
• In some cases it may be possible to use wind energy for pumping water, ventilation, electricity generation, etc.

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¹ This section has been adapted mainly from Sustainable Tourism Development: Guidelines for Local Planners (McIntyre and Hetherington, 1991).

² The South Rim developed area at Grand Canyon National Park, in the USA, is an example of development that has altered the character of the natural landscape. A major study is under way to modify existing development patterns and introduce sustainable facilities in order to reduce the tendency towards urbanization in the developed area (Patten, 1992).

³ During the editing stages of this book, the US National Park Service published Guiding Principles of Sustainable Design (1993), intended to provide a basis for achieving sustainability of biodiversity, and encourage responsible development decisions in parks and other conservation areas, particularly where related.

⁴ Much of the material in this section has been taken from: Andersen (1992); Bachman (1967); Beamiss Et Al. (1987): Berkebile (1992); Ceballos-Lascuráin (1984, 1986, 1990); Christiansen (1977); Curiel (1992); FAO (1984); MacKinnon Et Al. (1986); Manly (1977); McNeely, Thorsell and Ceballos-Lascuráin (1992); Patten (1992); Richman (1991); Selengut (1992), and Thorsell (1994).

⁵ Natural Bridges National Monument is an isolated park in the western US where designers have used photovoltaic (PV) technology to provide electricity. PV energy is considered an ideal type of renewable energy because the collector cells (composed mainly of policrystalline or amorphous silicon) that provide electricity do not have moving parts and do not release emissions into the environment.

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